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David Stephen, Ph. D.
24 February 2004
Copyright 2004 David Stephen
Note to the Reader
The article you are about to read is likely to be at variance with your understanding or belief
about Evolution. I request you to keep an open mind. The credibility of the evolutionary
mechanism disclosed here is well founded in the sciences. The problem is breaking off the
shackles that bind the mindset in us. This article is written as a narrative without many
scientific terms. The main purpose of this article is to draw attention to a new perspective on
Evolution. I will greatly appreciate your valuable suggestions and comments in respect of the
New Theory. Thank you very much.
Sincerely
David Stephen
29 Feb 2004
Contents: Page
Summary
Introduction
The New Theory of Evolution
Extinctions
The Laws of Evolution
Conclusion
Acknowledgements
Unpublished Copyright 2004 David Stephen
SUMMARY
All Evolutionary Theories are based on some association between Natural Selection and
Random Mutations. Natural Selection is not a biological process and therefore lies outside the
purview of Science. Mutation is a biological process but mutations are random and are often
detrimental to the organism. Therefore, all Evolutionary Theories are untenable. The New
Theory envisages that during the Evolution of the earliest multicellular organism(s), the
functional organization of cells made all the cells interdependent. In this new organization,
some groups of cells performed the nutritional function while others performed the
reproductive function. This multicellular existence was facilitated by their unique ability for
intercellular genetic communication. A capability they all inherited from their ancestral
prokaryotes. This capability enabled the nutritional cells to communicate with each other and
to send necessary genetic information or genes to be incorporated in the reproductive cell(s).
These communications developed by the nutritional cells are in response to “need(s)”
experienced by them. The reproductive cells now had the exclusive task of producing a
progeny with the new incorporated change(s). This interactive-intercellular- genetic-
communication of nutritional cells, tissues and organs with reproductive cells set the stage for
the construction of more and more complex and higher forms of Life. An interactive genetic
communication is possible because every cell carries the entire complement of genes and the
circulatory system establishes a communication pathway to the reproductive cells. This is the
essence of the New Theory. Seven Laws of Evolution are postulated based on this New
Theory of Evolution.
THE NEW THEORY OF EVOLUTION AND THE LAWS OF EVOLUTION
David Stephen, Ph.D
Email: davidstephen2003@hotmail.com
INTRODUCTION
In spite of the recent advances in genomic research and even as we explore Mars for evidence
of Life, we have not understood the fundamental mechanism by which Life has evolved here
on Earth. In fact, a tenable theory of Evolution has eluded Man for nearly two centuries. In
the absence of which, Darwin’s theory of Evolution has become an accepted theory by
default. It is argued here for the first time that Natural Selection is not a biological process
and therefore lies outside the purview of Science. The theory should have been rejected even if
an alternative theory was not available. On the contrary, there is a relentless attempt to prove
that Natural Selection somehow works through Mendel’s Inheritance Genetics. Darwin’s
Birds and Mendel’s Peas, being as diverse as animal and plant, their marriage of convenience
has produced many sterile Evolutionary Theories. While Darwin observed the results of
Natural Inheritance, Mendel observed the results of Unnatural Inheritance. Mendel’s Peas
would not have naturally cross-fertilized, in other words, what Nature had separated through
Evolution, Man had put together. It should be clear that Inheritance and Evolution are two
different biological processes. Evolution is about producing changes and Inheritance is about
transferring those changes to the progeny. If there is no change, Evolution has not occurred.
Hence, Evolution and Inheritance are two fundamental biological processes of Life. Darwin
merely substituted Nature in Mendel’s Artificial Selection and came up with Natural Selection.
According to recent theories, random gene mutations produce the new genes and this is
inherited following Mendelian Genetics and then those with Reproductive Advantages undergo
Natural Selection. In other words, Nature favors some mutants over others. These theories
would be true if Reproductive Advantage and Natural Selection were biological processes.
Reproductive Advantage was a concept introduced by Darwin’s grandfather (Erasmus Darwin
1731-1802) based on observations of his domesticated animals, but it is also the central theme
in Darwin’s epic publication “On the Origin of Species or the Preservation of Favored Races
in the Struggle for Life”, 1859. Most plants and many animals reproduce through mass
pollination, mass spawning and random mating. Therefore, Reproductive Advantage, which is
the underlying mechanism of Natural Selection, is also not applicable to all living organisms.
Furthermore, because these are not biological processes the underling mechanism is therefore
flawed.
Natural Selection lies in the realm of human imagination. Having moved away from the Divine
Force, “Nature” was made the new Force for the “Preservation of Favored Races in the
Struggle for Life” to use Darwin’s own words. In fact, the history of the so-called Civilized
Man for the last two hundred years reflects the tragedy of Darwin’s thesis, where Nature was
made a good excuse by the Favored Races in the so-called “Struggle for Life”. Nevertheless,
modern evolutionary theorists gave up the Divine Force that favors the Good over the Evil for
another, that is, Nature. Nature was considered a Neutral Force but in the “Struggle for Life”
it favors the Good (the Favored Races) over the Bad (the Un-favored Races). It is necessary
to digress here, while Good is Good in both the Forces, Evil and Bad are what distinguishes
them. “Evil” has religious origins but “Bad” has human origins and this notion of “Bad” is
evident in Social Darwinism as “Survival of the Fittest” in the struggle for life. The so-called
Civilized Man could now justify his “Bad” behavior as being just “Natural” and find solace in
the fact that the Divine Force that created all things is ever forgiving. Civilized Man now had
the best of both Worlds, thanks to a strange theory of Evolution from the two Darwins and
their modern day followers. Nevertheless, evolutionists subscribing to the Natural Selection
theory have personified Nature and Nature is also made more Divine by creationist to serve
their own purpose. If Nature created all Life, then the Creator created Nature and everything
else. Who or what created the Creator is irrelevant at this time. Personification of Nature and
Divinity is an inculcated disease of the human mind and is not curable under the present
circumstances.
Since Evolution and Speciation have occurred, it should be clear that the mutation theory of
Evolution is also inherently flawed because of the randomness of gene mutation. Furthermore,
Mendelian Genetics is a product of assumptions and Punnet squares and has nothing to do
with Evolution. All theorists accept evolution as a progressive process and yet this progress is
to be achieved through an uncertain process, that is, Random Mutation. All Evolutionary
theories are based on fossil records, Random Mutation and Natural Selection. The current
dominant theory, the Modern Evolutionary Synthesis combines Darwin's theory of the
Evolution of species by Natural Selection with Mendel’s theory of genetics as the basis for
biological inheritance. Here genetic variation in populations arise by chance through mutations
(which are mistakes in DNA replication) and recombination (crossing over of homologous
chromosomes during meiosis). Furthermore, Evolution supposedly occurs as a result of
changes in the frequencies of alleles between one generation and another as a result of genetic
drift, gene flow and Natural Selection. In addition, when geographic barriers reproductively
isolate populations, Speciation occurs gradually. While there is grandeur in all these theories,
they are merely self-serving and self-reinforcing and a strong paradigm exists today.
Gene Mutations are errors in transcription and must be recognized as such. To be sure,
Mutations (from the Latin word mutare to change) are permanent and inheritable changes to
the genetic material (usually DNA or RNA) of an organism. Mutations are caused by copying
errors in the genetic material during cell division; it can also be caused by exposure to
radiation, chemicals or viruses. Mutations generally lead to abnormalities, malfunction or death
of a cell and can cause cancer in higher organisms. However, Mutations are considered the
driving force of Evolution, somehow the less favorable mutations are removed by Natural
Selection, but favorable and neutral ones accumulate in the population. Since mutations are
inherited, as they should be, it does not validate any Evolutionary theory on that basis.
Randomness also implies that there is no continuity and therefore random mutations cannot
ensure progress of change, which is the central notion in Evolution. Nevertheless,
Evolutionists continue to use mutation as the mechanism of Evolution in spite of the
irrationality. Although, mutation is a biological process, mutation as a Mechanism of Evolution
must be rejected.
Evolution manifests as adaptations and adaptations require directionality in the next generation
because all new changes are produced only in the progeny. This is a unique mechanism of Life
on Earth and the benefits of new genes or Evolution are bequeathed through a biological
process to the progeny. In other words, multicellular organisms cannot physically change in
their own lifetime. This is because of the complexities in their structure and organization.
Therefore, only repeated directionality in future generations can ensure progressive
development or Evolution. From this perspective, a species is an accumulation of adaptations
derived through its Evolutionary history. Adaptations are “need” based and Evolution is the
result of Adaptations. Based on this view, it must be pointed out that neither time nor space is
a causative factor of Evolution. Therefore, the Evolutionary history of a living species or an
extinct (fossilized) species cannot be determined accurately by studying their geographical
distribution and geological time periods in which they live or lived. Nevertheless, a common
genetic mechanism must exist to facilitate the process of change. Such a mechanism must be
biological and fundamental to all Life. Such a mechanism cannot be based on some rare
geological event, random genetic event or some mysterious Forces. The New Theory provides
evidence that a hidden biological mechanism exists and has caused the Evolution and
Speciation of Life forms on Earth.
THE NEW THEORY OF EVOLUTION
In order to understand the new mechanism of Evolution, it is necessary to discuss what
biological processes enabled single celled organism to change to a multicellular way of Life and
what biological processes facilitate multicellular existence, assuming that one evolved from the
other. Such an inquiry though cursory will reveal the Evolutionary Mechanism.
It is the reactive nature of chemicals that caused the formation of primordial organic
substances. Some of these organic substances were the precursors of Life and therefore Life
is inherently chemical and reactive. Some organic complexes developed simple genes and
became singular and individualized with the development of the cell wall. At this first stage
they merely divided into two sister cells at a time by partitioning (mitotic division) their
nutritional and genetic endowments (these are the Prokaryotes, for example, Bacteria). The
cell wall is rigid and this enabled the organism to form spores under harsh conditions and
spores are easily dispersed to new environments or into space. These organisms further
developed sophisticated structures and functional organizations and communication
mechanisms within their cells. They also developed intercellular communications by
conjugation, a process by which they acquired and or shared chemicals or genes with other
sister cells. The internal and external (intercellular) genetic communication ability of these
single celled organisms is a fundamental biological process and is inherited by all advanced Life
forms.
Some of these single celled organisms advanced further by reorganizing their internal systems
and compartmentalizing their genetic endowment. They developed the unique nuclear
membrane (these are the Eukaryotes). The internal and external genetic communication under
the new organization became nuclear based. It is estimated that the Prokaryotes occupied
Earth for over 2 billion years before the arrival of the Eukaryotes. There are two fundamental
differences in the Eukaryotes, one is the nuclear membrane and the second is the difference in
the structure and chemical nature of the cell wall. It appears that the advantages of the nuclear
membrane were realized through genetic communication and this enabled these organisms to
convert their rigid cell walls to softer compositions. The new kind of cell wall facilitated the
transport of larger molecules across the wall. This is a second stage in the Evolution of Life
forms, where there is a much higher level of intracellular division of labor and where the
nutritional function gained priority over the reproductive function for obvious reasons. This
reorganization facilitated growth of the cell and also enhanced the reproductive process by
ensuring a systematic and timely partitioning of the cell into sister cells. At this second stage,
a second form of Life is single celled in form, nuclear based, mitotically reproducing,
organized in nutritional and reproductive functions, intra and intercellular in communication
and chemical in substance.
It is proposed here that the new cell wall is the most important turning point from where
multicellular organizations and Evolution of higher forms of Life became possible. The new
nuclear membrane and the new cell wall gave the Eukaryotes the advantage in intercellular
genetic communication that the Prokaryotes lacked. Hence, Prokaryotes and those Eukaryotes
that did not develop or acquire the new cell wall genes continued their existence in a fluidized
state and they remain so today. Although, they are considered to be the most successful of all
living organisms, they did not have the capacity to evolve into structured higher forms but
they certainly laid the cellular foundation on which all higher forms will be built.
Interactive genetic communications through the new cell wall enabled some Eukaryotes to
produce colonies by attachment of many sister cells. It is also likely that some sister cells
remained attached after cell divisions. Nevertheless, such associations provided further
nutritional and reproductive benefits. These cellular associations became more internally
organized in a functional manner separating the nutritional function from the reproductive
function, very similar to the organization within the Eukaryotic cell. The functional
organization of cells made them all interdependent and hence a major transformation of Life
took place from the singular-individual existence to the multicellular-individual existence. In
fact, their ability for interactive-intercellular genetic communication facilitated this new
multicellular existence. This is an ability they all inherited from their ancestral prokaryotes.
This is a third stage, where diverse groups of lower multicellular organisms come into
existence. It is important to note that the cells maintained their cellular and genetic individuality
in this new form of existence. If the cells had lost their cellular individuality, then the new
organism would have become single celled and remained in a fluidized state. Nevertheless, it
was imperative to retain the cellular individuality of the cells with their respective genetic
endowments, because of their functional interdependence within this new multicellular
organization.
In this multicellular organization, some groups of cells performed the nutritional function while
others performed the reproductive function. Their intercellular genetic communication ability
enabled the diverse nutritional cells and their associated components to communicate with
each other and to send necessary genetic communications or genes to be incorporated in the
genetic package of the reproductive cell(s). These communications are developed by the
nutritional cells in response to “need(s)” experienced by them. This communication process is
self-evident and is a process that is fundamental to Life. The reproductive cells now had the
exclusive task of producing a progeny with the new incorporated changes. This is the essence
of the New Theory of Evolution. It should be clear by now that the first place to look for the
Evolutionary Mechanism is in the lowest multicellular organisms that exist today.
This process of interactive-intercellular- genetic-communication of nutritional cells and
reproductive cells set the stage for the construction of more and more complex and higher
forms of Life as the environment and circumstances demanded. The big question is how do
cells perceive these “demands” or “needs.” It is self-evident that single cells perceive the
environment and each other because it is a biological process that is fundamental to Life. If the
single celled organisms sustained themselves and developed genes and a genetic code for
reproduction and survive even today, then it is self-evident that they have the ability to
perceive “need” and to respond to it. This same ability was inherited by the multicellular
organisms, which are composed of similar single cells with advanced intercellular genetic
communication. The nutritional cells in higher forms have diversified into physical structures,
digestive organs and associated sensory organs. Such specialization of cells into organs
improved their ability to perceive the environment and to respond genetically through
interactive cellular communications with reproductive cells. It is this ability of higher
organisms that provides directionality in adaptations and that is why adaptations appear ‘fit” to
an observer. It must be clear that organization of cells into organs of perceptions is primarily
for the purpose of communication with self. This communication elicits a response from the
organism and is genetically coded for the reproductive cells to ensure incorporation in the
gametes and expression in the progeny. This is a straightforward mechanism and intercellular
genetic communication between somatic or nutritional cells and reproductive cells is the key.
Mutations, Natural Selections, Mendelian Genetics and Unknown Forces cannot facilitate this
intercellular genetic communication. This process is fundamental to Life and is directly
responsible for the diversity of Life on Earth. For billions of years this process has produced
complex and diverse forms of Life. All living and extinct species are called Adaptants under
the New Theory, as opposed to the other theories where species are really “Mutants of a
Kind”.
The production of new genes in an organism is “need” based and several individuals in a
population will produce response gene(s) that are similar for a need or for the same need
individuals may produce different kinds of response genes. In other words, for a given need /
problem there are many satisfactory solutions and solutions are based on perceptions and
response is based on genetic potential. This multi-response and multi-solution strategy is
inherent and has great implications for proper adaptation and reproductive success of the
population. It provides the adjustability in adaptations to a particular need. Nevertheless, it is
the interactive intercellular genetic mechanism that provides the directionality for
nutritional/somatic cells to further develop the same response and advance it to a satisfactory
level. The extent of specialization depends on the importance of a specific need in the Life of
an organism. This implies that every attribute is genetically derived for a need or purpose. If
there are attributes that seem irrelevant, it simply means we have not understood the full
evolutionary history of the species.
In multicellular forms, specialized organs provide sensory perceptions of chemical and
physical factors. These organs further enhanced their nutritional and reproductive success.
Sensory organs perceive the external environment and determine improvements in their
structure and function. These improvements are based on the experiences of the organism
during its full development and intercellular genetic communication provides the information
for change to the reproductive cells, if any. A higher frequency of gamete production enables
more rapid changes in future progeny by acquiring or sharing new genes from other
individuals. Asexual reproduction and hermaphroditism had limitations and the interactive
genetic process caused the development of an improved mechanism by which new genes
developed in one or more individuals may be incorporated quickly into the genome of the
population as a whole. In sedentary plants and motile animals the production of gametes
enabled organisms to share and or acquire genetic information from other individuals, without
reducing their potential to produce further genetically improved gametes. The interactive
process also enabled concomitant changes in the nature of the gametes, reproductive
structures and reproductive strategy as the organisms actively adapted to new habitats and
interacted with other species. Gametes became more diverse and representative of the Life
style of the various groups. Reproductive frequency is determined by nutritional ability and
environmental conditions. Higher frequency of reproduction and larger number of gametes
enables a greater sharing of new genes and more rapid adaptations to change. The
differentiation of gametes into males and females assured cross sharing and acquiring of
genetic information. In forms that had developed advanced visual perceptions, sexual
dimorphism evolved to ensure that gamete differentiation functioned and the organism secured
advantages.
Thus sexual reproduction has many advantages and it facilitates Evolution. Nevertheless, the
primary source of new genes is from somatic cells, tissues or organs of an organism, these
genes are incorporated in the gametes. The progeny has the advantage of obtaining new genes
from either one or both parents thus improving its nutritional and reproductive success in a
dynamic environment. The interactive genetic process inherently produces repeated changes
that are progressive and directional leaving evidence of transitional and transformed species
among those living and those of the past. It is therefore not surprising to find what appears to
be parallel and multiple Evolutions of structures and organs in unrelated higher forms.
In the fertilization and embryonic development of multicellular organisms, we see how the
single celled organisms (that is the gametes) interactively communicate with each other to
form a colony like the Blastocyst and then evolve into more advanced multicellular
organization. In fact, this evolutionary mechanism is revealed in the earliest stages of the
embryonic development of every multicellular organism, including Man. To be sure, the
Evolutionary history of Life’s earliest forms unfolds in the embryonic development of
multicellular organisms of every kind, every time a progeny develops. At this stage the embryo
is no different from a lower multicellular invertebrate organism. For example, at the Blastocyst
stage, the stem cells differentiate and take on diverse tasks of construction and function
through intercellular genetic communication. After the Blastocyst stage, one of the stem cells
will become the gonads, but remain basically somatic until it is time to transform into
reproductive cells and function as gametes. Therefore, all cells in the body of a multicellular
organism have the same genetic endowment or genome. When they differentiate for special
tasks, their genome becomes active in sections of relevance to their function. Other sections
are activated as intercellular communications demand. The presence of the entire genome in
somatic cells facilitates interactive communication with other cells including the reproductive
cells. Somatic cells can now send communications to reproductive cells for change not only
for its own section but also for other sections for coordinated development. If such an
intercellular genetic communication did not exist, multicellular existence would not be
possible. Furthermore, without an intercellular genetic communication, construction of a
complex multicellular organism will not be feasible from a single cell or the zygote. In
conclusion, every somatic cell requires the entire genome for its functional differentiation and
genetic communication. Every reproductive cell requires the entire genome to construct the
multicellular progeny.
Without intercellular communication there will be chaos in embryonic development. To be
sure, the construction of multicellular animals requires a multipoint simultaneous and
coordinated mechanism because of the symmetry of the body. This is possible because from
the early stages of Evolution, the multicellular animal forms accumulated all the genes and used
the cumulative genetic record as the blue print or master plan for construction of the progeny
as they changed and transformed. The ancestral genes provide the Evolutionary templates and
a sequential pattern of construction enables the termination of abandoned constructs and
addition of new constructs. This is the basic construction process by which embryonic
development takes place and the reason why it appears that ontogeny recapitulates phylogeny
in higher animals. Ernst Haeckel first postulated the “Theory of Recapitulation” in 1866, which
claims that the development of the embryo of every species repeats the Evolutionary
development of that species. While modern biology rejects Haeckel's theory, it is generally
accepted that humans have evolved from fish through reptiles to mammals. The intercellular
genetic communication provides the directionality in the embryonic development as well. This
is evident at every cell division in the embryo before and after the Blastocyst stage. Plants are
asymmetrical and have no complex sensory organs, while mobile animal forms are
symmetrical and have complex sensory organs. Therefore plant construction is simple and
does not need a multi-point construction. While a monkey cannot be constructed by starting
at the tail end, plants can be and this is seen in all multicellular higher plants. No seedling looks
like the adult plant.
The interactive intercellular communication between nutritional cells and reproductive cells is
the fundamental mechanism that drives Evolution. The New Theory of Evolution is based on
this mechanism and envisages Evolution as a process of Interactive Development. This
mechanism is common to all multicellular plants and animals, living and extinct. In the
multicellular organisms, every individual cell has the potential to produce and incorporate new
genes in the gametes, and every progeny has the potential to acquire new genes from either
one or both parents. It is this process of producing new genes in the parents and sharing or
acquiring it for the progeny that changes the progeny. Changes in progeny manifest as
variants in a population of Adaptants or species. Changes in the species leads to Speciation,
the accumulation of change that advance Life forms is Evolution.
Genetic messages sent by cells, tissues and organs to the reproductive cells are translated to
genetic engineering in the chromosomes to produce “change(s)” in the progeny. This is
analogous to the “evaluation and feed back” mechanism that any manufacturing industry must
have to improve its product and survival in the market place. This is the Evolutionary
Mechanism and the Evolutionary process is over once the new genes are incorporated in the
chromosomes of the parent’s reproductive cells. This is the central dogma of the New
Theory. The incorporation, therefore, must take place before the meiotic division that
produces gametes or the haploid condition. After the incorporation of these genes in the
nucleus of the reproductive cells, these reproductive cells transform into gametes. In other
words, the reproductive cells or gametes facilitate the transfer of genetic information of the
progenitor or parent(s) along with the newly incorporated genes to the progeny; this is the
process of inheritance. Therefore, the process of inheritance (transfer of genetic information)
and the process of reproduction (embryonic development based on the inherited genetic
information from two gametes) are not involved in the Mechanism of Evolution. These two
biological processes ensure survival of the species, regardless of Evolution.
The New Theory envisages that development of higher forms of Life from lower forms or the
development of new species occurs from individuals in a population through the interactive
intercellular genetic communication process in response to a “need” that enhances the
nutritional or reproductive performance of their progeny. Organisms interactively produce
new genes, improvement genes or suppression genes for a new or prevailing “need.” New
genes initiate the process of change, improvement genes ensure progress and provide
directionality and suppression genes remove or inactivate those changes that are unnecessary
in the present. The intercellular genetic communication facilitates “evaluation and feed back”
of genetic performance. This mechanism sustains Evolution and makes it directional and
progressive and as a consequence produces complexity and diversity as the organisms actively
adapt to their environments. An “interactive” genetic communication is possible because every
cell has the entire complement of genes and the circulatory system establishes a
communication pathway to the reproductive cells. There may be other forms of
communications and pathways.
The foregoing discussions clearly show what the Evolutionary Mechanism is, how this
Evolutionary Mechanism works, and why the Evolution of advanced and adapted forms was
inevitable, given the unique intercellular genetic communication developed by the simplest of
Life forms, the Prokaryotes. In all forms of Life, living and extinct, the interactive genetic
process has produced specialized structures and complex organs that have enabled them to
sustain and reproduce in their period of time, in their respective space or place on Earth. This
implies that “time” and “space” do not determine the rate of Evolution or the direction of
Evolution. Evolution is determined only by “need” that impinges on the organism and the
genetic potential of that organism to respond, regardless of time and space. In fact, the
magnitude of influence of the genetic potential is evident in the unique adaptations (for
example: the sticky tongue of frogs and anteaters) and in the highly modified organs and
structures of some species that differ distinctly from their near relatives (for example: Giraffe’
s neck, poisonous snakes, chameleon’s eyes). In fact, it renders some species extraordinarily
perfect, forcing the conclusion that a more proactive intercellular genetic process is at work in
advanced forms (for example, parasites). In this respect, Lamarck’s (1744-1829) view of
Evolution was indeed remarkable. Lamarck appears to have looked at organisms differently
from his contemporaries in that he did not see a “Struggle for Life” instead he appears to have
seen a predisposition to adapt. Lamarck thought that an organism (which is the parent)
changed or adapted during its lifetime and passed on the change to the offspring. Whereas,
the New Theory envisages that it is only the offspring that changes based on the new genes it
has acquired from the parent. The parent can only produce new genes for its progeny. The
change is incorporated during the embryonic development or some developmental phase later.
The parent cannot change or adapt because of the complexities in the body form as mentioned
earlier. Nevertheless, Lamarck recognized that a biological process was at work unlike
Darwin and his followers. Darwin and his followers expect Nature to “Select” because they
had personified Nature, just as Creationist had personified God. Lamarck deserves praise for
his seminal work on Evolution and his rightful place in History is at the top.
EXTINCTIONS
A discussion on Extinction is pertinent because most Evolutionary theories are based on the
fossil records and validated conveniently by Random Mutation, in spite of the irrationality. A
species that is subjected to a “need” will advance a response through the adaptation process
which involves intercellular genetic communication, in doing so their progeny can appear to be
physically different in comparison to their parents or dead ancestors generations past or there
will be no external manifestation if the change is physiological adaptation involving internal soft
tissues and organs. Fossilization of such dead ancestors, regardless of time and space has
occurred and a difference becomes evident in related species. This difference has lead to the
wrong conclusion that the dead and fossilized ancestors are actually related species that did
not survive due to their genetic ineptitude, in other words these are the bad mutants. While
Naturalists accept that Evolution is gradual and therefore transitional species must exist, they
fail to recognize that extinct or fossilized relatives are indeed transitional forms of extant
species. However, the mere existence of fossils cannot validate any Evolutionary Mechanism.
The Mechanism of Evolution cannot be found in the fossils of the dead instead as shown here
it is easily found in the Life that abounds everywhere today.
In this respect, the concept of Extinction is also in the realm of human imagination. Extinction
is not a biological process, like death. Natural catastrophic events, massive predation and
disease can cause extinction of an endemic species, just as humans have abundantly
demonstrated this in the case of a number of species. The existence of fossils in the geological
past, clearly demonstrates that in their time and space (for example: 6o million years ago),
ancestral species have successfully sustained and reproduced their kind and had the genetic
potential to adapt to change and evolve. They were in no way misfit mutants. Every species is
endowed with a genetic potential and a reproductive frequency with which to overcome the
rate of environmental or inter-specific change (ex. predation, disease and competitive
exclusion) to survive. In other words, if a species did not have the opportunity to change due
to environmental hazards (catastrophic) or biological exigencies that species will die off
because of nutritional or reproductive failures. Therefore, extinct species are not failures, they
were all successful species, some of them transformed as needs demanded, while others
remained unchanged, but they are all individuals whose biological longevity ended and this is
fundamental to multicellular Life, that is, death of the individual. Death and reproduction are
two imperatives for change to manifest.
While stable climatic conditions during various geological periods stabilized the distribution of
species over the long term, changes in the short term (non-catastrophic) were gradual enough
to enable species of plants and animals to seek new distributions or change genetically and
remain. The so-called Cambrian Explosion reflects a coming of age of the multicellular forms
because of their ability to actively adapt. This produced the diversity evident in the fossils of
that period. It was by no means a period that produced numerous mutants and only some
were selected by Nature. Punctuated Equilibrium, another concept in Evolution based on
mutation, merely reflects the response of species to environmental change, where the change
is itself punctuated. In any case, the Mutation Theory cannot explain either the Cambrian
Explosion or the Punctuated Equilibrium because the theory is fundamentally flawed.
THE LAWS OF EVOLUTION
The New Evolutionary Mechanism elaborated above brings out many generalities and specifics
that it is pertinent to formulate them into Laws for a better understanding of Evolution. The
following Seven Laws of Biological Evolution are based on two fundamental self-evident Laws
of Life:
- The First Law of Life states that Life begets Life. This law is the most
fundamental Law of Life and manifests in the process of reproduction. - The Second Law of Life states that Life must adapt or perish. This law is based on
the dynamics of the Non-living Environment that exists and the dynamics of the Living
Environment that Life has created. This Law dictates the Laws of Evolution in
conjunction with the First Law. The Seven Laws of Evolution facilitate adaptation and
reproduction in the two dynamic environments.
The following Seven Laws of Evolution are postulated:
- The First Law is the Law of Biological Reproduction, which states that all living
forms are endowed with a genetic mechanism to sustain themselves and to reproduce
their own kind.This law is fundamental and self-evident. The genetic mechanism
ensures their sustenance (facilitated by The Second, Third and Fourth Laws) and
identity (facilitated by the Fifth, Sixth and Seventh Laws). - The Second Law is the Law of Biological Adaptation, which states that all
adaptations are expressed only in the progeny in accordance with the Laws Third
through the Seventh. This is a unique mechanism of Life on Earth. Multicellular
organisms cannot biologically change in their own Lifetime because of complexities in
their structure and organization. All new changes are produced only in the progeny.
The benefits of new genes or Evolution are bequeathed through a biological process to
the progeny. Evolution manifests as adaptations and adaptations require directionality in
the next generation. - The Third Law is the Law of Interactive Development, which states that
Intercellular Genetic Communication between cells, tissues and organs of an organism
with its reproductive cells provides the mechanism by which the individual organism
ensures improvements and adaptations which are vital to the sustenance and
reproductive success of its progeny. The intercellular genetic communication enables
the formation and incorporation of new genes in the genome of the reproductive cells
of an organism. The new genes are derived interactively based on a “need” perceived
by the organism in all its parts and as a whole. The interactive development is the
Evolutionary Mechanism. This mechanism caused the development of all multicellular
forms from single celled organisms as they actively adapted to change. - The Fourth Law is the Law of Directional Development, which states that every
interactively developed new gene(s) derived by the Evolutionary Mechanism (the Third
Law) has directionality towards a specific need and hence such genes are progressive
in generations of the species and results in full adaptation and specialization for a need.
Adaptations and specializations to a need transform the species over generations and
also separates a species into related transitional groups, the manifestation of such
changes is called Speciation. Directional Development produces specialized structures
and organs so common in higher plants and animals. It also enables different unrelated
species to find solutions that are similar. For example, the prehensile tail in monkey,
chameleon and seahorse; ability to fly in flying squirrels, flying gecko and flying snake
in the same South American Jungle; Big ears in bats, Bat-eared foxes and Rabbit ears
for improved hearing; echo location in bats and dolphins; webbed feet in ducks, frogs
and otters; air bulbs in water hyacinth and sea kelp. These examples show how
directional development manifests for a “need” and why they can be similar for the
same need in diverse groups. By the same token, for a given need diverse groups can
find different ways to solve the same problem (for example, Blubber in whales and fur
in polar bears; sting in bees and ink in octopus for defense; fangs in snakes and beak in
hawks). The Evolution of all sensory organs in higher animals is due to directional
development. Poisonous snakes have to evolve many complex structures such as
grooved fangs, poison sac, poison and all the sensory and muscular co-ordinations to
be effective, the same is true in all the above examples, not to mention apes and man. - The Fifth Law is the Law of Reproductive Specificity, which states that biological
reproduction requires specificity of gametes in the construction of the offspring.
Reproductive specificity evolved very early in the history of Life and is attributed to the
reactive nature of chemicals and nutritional (autotrophic or heterotrophic) requirements
of the single celled organisms as they evolved and diverged. In the absence of gamete
specificity, construction of the progeny will fail at some stage because of incompatible
intercellular genetic communications as dictated by the Sixth Law. It is for this reason
that individuals of the same species are compatible. Related species are also compatible
to the extent their genes are similar but often result in sterile offspring or do not breed
true. - The Sixth Law is the Law of Progenic Development, which states that higher plants
and animals have evolved distinctly different methods for the construction of their
progeny and this is due to Asymmetry and Symmetry in their respective body forms
and this is evident in their genomes as well. The difference in the mode of life of plants
and animals that is basically sedentary or mobility determines their body form. This
body form is asymmetric in plants and symmetric in animals. Plants follow the Non-
Phylogenic construction method to produce their offspring; animals follow the
Phylogenic construction method. In the phylogenic construction method ancestral
templates are used for simultaneous multipoint construction. The embryonic
development results in an offspring that is fully formed at birth or quickly undergoes
metamorphosis and resembles the adult. Plants do not use this method; they develop
from a single point and grow body parts over time. - The Seventh Law is the Law of Genomic Inheritance, which states that every
organism inherits the entire genetic complement of its parent (asexual) or parents
(sexual) and this is manifested in all the cells of a multicellular organism. Total Genetic
inheritance is dictated by the above Six Laws. The inheritance by the progeny of the
entire genetic complement which includes ancestral genes, repeats and new genes not
only ensures survival and reproduction but it provides the progeny with a unique
potential to adapt further through the Evolutionary Mechanism. In multicellular
organisms, partial inheritance of genetic information will cause partial development or
development will be aborted and reproductive success of that individual is zero for that
attempt. Furthermore, every interactively developed new gene(s) that advances a
response for a current need or causes regression from an advanced stage for a need no
longer valid are all dominant genes. The Fourth Law ensures that Evolutionary history
prevails and hence in the more recent species, the new genes for a need are all current
and dominant. In the hybridization of related species, the dominant attribute belongs to
the more recent species because of the evolutionary history of the two.
CONCLUSION:
The New Theory of Evolution differs distinctly from all Evolutionary Theories. The New
Theory envisages an interactive intercellular genetic communication between the cellular
components of the organism and its reproductive cells for the first time among Evolutionary
theories.
Organisms have two basic functions, first to sustain themselves (First, Second and Third
Laws) and second to reproduce (Fourth, Fifth, Sixth and Seventh Laws). An organism
balances these two functions with the genetic potential it is endowed with. Therefore, the
interaction of these two functions is imperative and such an interaction can only be inter-
cellular in organisms that are multicellular. The existence of intercellular genetic
communication needs no proof because it is well established that cells communicate internally
(intracellular) and externally (intercellular) with each other and this is common to single celled
as well as to multicellular organisms. The transformation of somatic cells to reproductive cells
or gametes, the formation of zygote, the differentiation of cells into somatic components in the
Blastocyst stage, the transformation of some somatic cells into gonads and further
differentiation into gametes are all evidences of intercellular genetic communications. During
the life of an organism, all cells perceive their immediate environment within the multicellular
organism, similarly, there are sensory cells, tissues and organs that sense the outside World of
an organism and this enables it to genetically respond to a new or existing need by generating
necessary new genes. It should be clear that the parent as well as the progeny over a few
generations experiences the same need and therefore the need is recognized and a response is
directed repeatedly in successive reproductive cycles and an adaptation is produced since
directionality is maintained.
Genetic Mutations are copying errors and errors good, bad or neutral are once again human
interpretations to satisfy a “need”. That “need” is to explain Evolution with the knowledge
currently available, which is all mutation based, fossils notwithstanding. The New Theory
releases all Life forms from being Random Mutants to Specific Adaptants. The new theory has
serious implications for Human Evolution as well as Man’s dominion over other forms of Life.
The technological advances that Man has made in recent years have resolved many of Man’s
“needs” and therefore the biological response is inhibited for those needs. Man’s profound
impact on all other forms of Life has serious implications for the future of Evolution. Man
constitutes a Third Force more powerful and destructive. The last two hundred years of Man’
s history could have been written differently had Nature been better understood then.
Nevertheless, though our current knowledge base is surely better than what Lamarck and
Darwin had, modern researchers of the evolutionary persuasion have had the inclination to
look in the wrong places.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS:
This article brings to a temporal closure of a quest that began in the late Sixties when as a
teenager I experienced an event that seemed to contradict everything I knew then about Life.
That quest was to understand Life, Religion and Evolution but not necessarily in that order.
Evolution was the most difficult to understand because observations contradicted the theories.
It became evident to me that evolutionary theorists and scientists have consistently failed to
really observe what they see. This is because of imprinting the mind with Darwinian based
evolutionary theories and in the absence of alternative ideas they have persistently piled high
and deep. This development in biological science is no different from the way Christianity
developed. In fact, most are armchair scientists with very little field experience; they lack the
experience that inspired Lamarck and Darwin. They have perpetuated a pseudo-science that is
self-propagating, reinforced by faithful followers. In fact, their theories are faith based on
Darwin, not different from any religious beliefs. It is no wonder that creationists don’t buy the
evolutionary theory. It makes more common sense to accept God as the driving mechanism
than Mutation and Natural Selection. In recent months discussions with Jeff Goodman a
colleague prompted me to start writing this article. As a good listener he made my thinking
clearer than ever before. Without his encouragement and support this writing would have been
further delayed. For this I thank him profusely. Andre Rowlett, another colleague also
supported my efforts, so I thank him. To the Reader I say thanks and wish you Happy
Evolution.